Although there are differences in opinion on what exactly constitutes social capital, Putnam believes political participation, civic participation (i.e. membership in formal organizations), religious participation, connections in the workplace, informal social connections, volunteering, and philanthropy, are accurate determining factors. The data Putnam relies on comes from social surveys spanning multiple decades, and the record-keeping of organizations and institutions (all of which are available here).
Putnam’s analysis reveals that in communities where there is ample social capital, citizens expect better government and get it, children tend to do better in school and in life, neighborhoods are safer and more productive, there is more economic prosperity, and people are generally healthier and happier. Putnam reasons that we are social creatures, and:
Where people know one another, interact with one another each week at choir practice or sports matches, and trust one another to behave honorably, they have a model and a moral foundation upon which to base further cooperative enterprises. (Putnam, Bowling Alone, p. 20)
If the individual, daily interactions of people all over the world create the history of our species, then I would argue creating communities rich in social capital will help create a more cooperative, and far less cruel world. So how do we go from here to there? In my opinion, history is a living textbook that provides invaluable information, allowing for a more complete understanding of the world. Putnam’s data, which stretches nearly the entire length of the 20th century reveals that:
… people born between 1910 and 1940 constitute a “long civic generation” – that is, a cohort of men and women who have been more engaged in civic affairs throughout their lives – voting more, joining more, trusting more, and so on – than either their predecessors or their successors in the sequence of generations. At the end of the century, that generation comprised virtually the entire cohort of people aged sixty and above. True to their own past, even in retirement they continue to be exceptionally good citizens. (Putnam, Bowling Alone, p. 132)
The general trend Putnam illustrates is that between 1900 and the mid 1930s, civic engagement was consistently moderate, but then an explosion of activity occurred between the 1940s and the mid 1960s. This period correlates to when people born between 1910 and 1940 started coming of age. Ever since then, participation has declined. This trend is illustrated best by the rise and decline of league bowling. Believe it or not, “bowling is the most popular competitive sport in America. Bowlers outnumber joggers, golfers, or softball players more than two to one, soccer players (including kids) by more than three to one, and tennis players or skiers by four to one.” [hence, the title of the book] (Putnam, Bowling Alone, p. 111)
So what was it about the people born between 1910 and 1940 that created so much civic engagement? Putnam believes one of the explanations for this is “the wartime Zeitgeist of national unity and patriotism that culminated in 1945,” that reinforced civic-mindedness. Patriotism, volunteering, donating, and community involvement are often how groups of people that perceive themselves to be in danger act. Sociologist William Graham Sumner, wrote in 1906:
A differentiation arises between ourselves, the we-group, or in-group, and everybody else, or the others-groups, out-groups … The relation of comradeship and peace in the we-group and that of hostility and war towards others-groups are correlative to each other. The exigencies of war with outsiders are what make peace inside …(Putnam, Bowling Alone, p. 267)
It’s important to note that who is, and is not, considered within the “we-group”, can bring to light many prejudices that exist within the society (for example, Japanese internment camps, persecution of innocent Muslims after September 11th, etc.). Nonetheless, growing up during these times arguably shaped the reality of the then-younger generations, who then carried those ideals later into their lives.
Each generation after World War II lived in a different social context, and failed to generate significant, and widespread, civic engagement. Putnam believes there are four primary reasons for this:
Pressures of time and money, including the special pressures on two-career families, contributed measurably to the diminution of our social and community involvement during these years. My best guess is that no more than 10% of the total decline is attributable to that set of factors.
Suburbanization, commuting, and sprawl also played a supporting role. Again, a reasonable estimate is that these factors together might account for perhaps an additional 10% of the problem.
The effect of electronic entertainment – above all, television – in privatizing our leisure time has been substantial. My rough estimate is that this factor might account for perhaps 25% of the decline.
The most important, generational change – the slow, steady, and ineluctable replacement of the long civic generation by their less involved children and grandchildren – has been a very powerful factor [accounts for perhaps half of the overall decline] (Putnam, Bowling Alone, p. 283)
As a result:
For better or worse, we rely increasingly – we are forced to rely increasingly – on formal institutions, and above all on the law, to accomplish what we used to accomplish through informal networks reinforced by generalized reciprocity – that is, through social capital. (Putnam, Bowling Alone, p. 147)
